Friday, November 29, 2019
Water Pollution Through Urban and Rural Land Use and Freshwater Allocation in New Zealand free essay sample
Water pollution through urban and rural land use and freshwater allocation in New Zealand New Zealand has 425,000 kilometres of rivers and streams, almost 4,000 lakes larger than 1 hectare in size, and about 200 groundwater aquifers (Ministry for the Environment, 2010). By international standards, freshwater in New Zealand is both clean and in good supply. However, some aspects of water quality are getting worse in areas dominated by intensive land use. Demand for water is increasing, particularly in areas that are already water-stressed. Water pollution is becoming an ongoing problem for New Zealand. Both Urban and Rural land uses are creating pollution in our water and degrading the quality of our water. Growing demand for water resources in many parts of New Zealand during the last two decades has increased competition and conflicts between different stakeholders for access to scarce surface water and groundwater resources. To try to enable more sustainability in the use of our freshwater, we need to learn to balance and control how much water we use and where it is most needed. We will write a custom essay sample on Water Pollution Through Urban and Rural Land Use and Freshwater Allocation in New Zealand or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Poor or declining water quality has already created direct costs, such as the nearly $450 million allocated over the next 10 to 20 years to the clean-up of Lake Taupo, Rotorua Lakes and the Waikato River, and can constrain economic opportunities (Ministry for the Environment 2010). In New Zealand, it is increasingly recognised, including by government, that water resource allocation and water quality are issues of national importance. Agriculture is frequently portrayed by New Zealand media as a major user of water and a major contributor to worsening water quality. (R. Cullen, 2006). Ministry for the Environment (1997, p. 88) said that: â€Å" Water quality is generally high around the coast, in deep lakes, and in the headwaters of most rivers, and in many cases this is maintained into lowland areas. However, water quality deteriorates in streams, rivers and lakes which drain agricultural catchments, with agricultural run-off causing elevated nutrient and sediment loads. †Water Quality Water quality is a term that is based upon the characteristics of water in relation to values of what is suitable for human consumption and for all usual domestic purposes, including personal hygiene. Components of water quality include microbial, biological, chemical, and physical aspects. Microbial aspects means that drinking water should not contain bacteria that would indicate excremental pollution, the primary indicator of which are coli form bacteria that are present in the faeces of warm-blooded organisms. Biological aspects show that parasitic protozoa are also indicators of water quality. Drinking water sources that are not likely to be contaminated by fecal matter should be used where possible due to the lack of good indicators for the presence or absence of pathogenic protozoa. Chemical mean that chronic health effects are more common than acute effects because the levels of chemicals in drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute health effects. Since there is limited evidence relating chronic human health conditions to specific drinking-water contaminants, laboratory animal studies and human data from clinical reports are used to predict adverse effects. Physical aspects of the water quality means the color, taste, and odour of water can be monitored. Inorganic compounds such as magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper, iron, and zinc are generally detected by the taste of water, and contamination with the oxygenated fuel additive MTBE has affected the taste of some water. Freshwater Allocation Growing demand for water resources in many parts of New Zealand during the last two decades has increased competition and conflicts between different stakeholders for access to scarce surface water and groundwater resources. However, while the RMA planning framework is innovative in a number of important respects, regional councils have evidently found it difficult to satisfactorily address water conflicts within the framework of the RMA. The RMA provides for regional councils to formulate policy statements and plans to allocate water resources and to allocate water to different uses under the resource consent process. The Act ties the granting of water permits for consumptive purposes to specific activities on or at particular sites. (Skelton, 2007). New Zealand needs to reduce our water usage if we want to keep the resource sustainable. According to studies completed by the Ministry for The Environment (2010), there were more than 20,500 resource consents for taking water. Around two-thirds of consents permit taking water from groundwater sources, however, the volume of water allocated from surface water sources (rivers and streams) is four times higher than from groundwater sources. In 2010, the majority of consumptive weekly allocations were for irrigation (46 per cent) and hydro generation (41 per cent). The remainder is shared among public drinking water supply, industry and stock watering. All of the volume for the hydro generation is for the Manapouri hydro take in Southland, which discharges the allocated fresh water to sea. [ (MFE, 2010) ] Use of weekly allocated water in New Zealand, 2010 Retrieved from http://www. mfe. govt. nz Agriculture and Freshwater Agricultural land use has a significant impact on water quality and the availability of fresh water, particularly in New Zealand’s lowland streams. The amount of pollution from diffuse sources, such as urban storm water, animal effluent and fertiliser run-off, has greatly increased in the past 20 years. To improve water quality farmers must learn that the effect of their management practices on water resources can have a negative effect on future generations. Managing stock levels, planting vegetation at the edge of rivers and streams (riparian planting) and other sustainable farming practices all help reduce the levels of farm effluent, excess nutrients and chemicals entering waterways. The Dairying and Clean Streams Accord was created. This is a voluntary agreement between Fonterra Co-operative Group (the largest dairy company in New Zealand), regional councils and the Ministers for the Environment and of Agriculture and Forestry. This was signed in May 2003, to try and achieve clean, healthy waterways in dairying regions (Ministry for the Environment, 2008). Urban land use and Freshwater Cities and towns exhibit some of the most intensive land use in New Zealand. It is not surprising that some of our most degraded streams are in these urban areas. Storm water runoff has the greatest effect on urban water quality and also on the flows of urban water. Action needs to be taken now to prevent further decline in water quality of urban waters, and to protect our pristine water bodies. The Government is developing national policies, such as the proposed National Policy Statement on Freshwater Management, to ensure that these objectives are met. Methods to improve discharges could include improved discharge treatment, riparian planting, wetland restoration and public education programmes, as well as improved approaches to town planning and development, such as low-impact urban design. (Ministry for the Environment, 2008) The Sustainable Water Programme of Action In 2003, the Ministry for the Environment and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry jointly launched the Sustainable Water Programme of Action (SWPoA) to identify priorities for government action to improve freshwater management in New Zealand. By 2007, government had approved the development of a national policy statement on freshwater, as well as two national environmental standards, including one that will ensure methods used to allocate water are geared to safeguard aquatic ecosystems. The New Zealand Government’s Sustainable Water Programme of Action was developed in response to growing concern among New Zealanders about the future sustainability of fresh water and the need for greater consistency in decision-making on freshwater management. The many Maori iwi found around the country want to protect the water of New Zealand as it is sacred to them and provides them with resources. Although the long-held connection that Maori have with freshwater resources and their role as kaitiaki in managing them has been formally recognised in New Zealand legislation and policy, there remains a gap between these initiatives and the realisation of Maori values in water-planning processes. It is essential Maori values are understood and accounted for when decisions are made regarding water allocations within these systems. In this context, then, increasing Maori involvement in freshwater management, including water allocation processes, has become a key component of the Government’s programme to improve water allocation decisions. (M Durette 2009) During my studies I have found that New Zealand has a huge problem with pollution and water use. If we want to keep the freshwater quality high and healthy, we need to seriously look into allocation of water to the different uses and balance it out in the amounts needed for each use. Personally, I think that the New Zealand government should start charging for the use of water. I think that this would be a good way to discourage people to use high amounts of unnecessary water. If we kept the water quality around where it is currently at, or even higher, it would save a lot of money that is being used to clean up the lakes in New Zealand. The pollution through rural and urban land use has to be more publicised as not many people know how much damage they are doing to the environment. If a campaign was set up to show the population what is happening to our freshwater resources, they would be more aware and informed of the situation and how they can do their part to save the resource.
Monday, November 25, 2019
5 Hospital Lawn Service Essays
5 Hospital Lawn Service Essays 5 Hospital Lawn Service Paper 5 Hospital Lawn Service Paper FOR:                                       {LAWN SERVICE}                                                  5 HOSPITAL                                                 {FACILITY, COUNTY}                                                 {CITY, STATE} BID TO:                                  {ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT}                                                 5 HOSPITAL                                                 {STREET ADDRESS}                                                 {CITY, STATE, ZIP}                                                  TELEPHONE: BID FROM:             _______________CABRO LANDSCAPERS_______________________                                                             (Name of Bidder)                                 ____________________La, 30002________________________                                                             (Address)                                  __Thompsons______, _New Jersey___, _____00200______                                        (City)                        (State)                     (Zip Code)                                                         _______123 456 789 0_____                                                                   (Telephone Number)                                                           ______08/08/2010____                                                              (Date Bid Submitted) 1.0 BIDDER’S REPRESENTATIONS Bidder, represent that a) it and all its subcontractors, regardless of tier, have the appropriate current and active contractor’s license required by the State of New Jersey and the Bidding documents; b) it has carefully read and examined the Bidding Documents for the Lawn Service; c) it has examined the site for the Lawn Service and all Information Available to Bidders; d) it has become familiar with all the conditions related to the Lawn Service, including the availability of labor, materials, and equipment. Bidder hereby offers to furnish all labor, materials, equipment, tools, transportation, and services necessary to complete the Lawn Service in accordance with the Contract Documents for the sum quoted. Bidder represents that the Key Personnel identified in its Prequalification submittal shall be the Bidder’s personnel identified in its provision of the contract, if the contract is awarded to the Bidder. Bidder further agrees that it will not withdraw its Bid withi n {60} days after the Bid Deadline, and that, if it is selected as the apparent lowest responsive and responsible Bidder, that it will, within 10 days after receipt of notice of selection, sign and deliver to 5 HOSPITAL the Agreement in triplicate and furnish to 5 HOSPITAL all items required by the Bidding Documents. If awarded the LAWN SERVICE CONTRACT, Bidder agrees to complete the proposed work for phase 1 within {120} days after the date of commencement specified in the Notice to Proceed and to complete the work for phase 2 within {90} days after the date for commencement specified in the Notice to Proceed if 5 HOSPITAL exercises its option for phase 2. 2.0 ADDENDA Bidder acknowledges that it is Bidder’s responsibility to ascertain whether any Addenda have been issued and if so, to obtain copies of such Addenda from 5 HOSPITAL’s Facility at the appropriate address stated on Page 1 of this Bid Form. Bidder agrees to be bound by all Addenda that have been issued for this Bid. 3.0 CONTRACT SUM – PHASE 1 The Contract Sum at time of award will be the Phase 1 Contract Sum. 4.0 OPTION SUM – PHASE 2 0 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0              $ Bidder includes in the Option Sum – Phase 2, the following allowances: $ {100,000} for {Overtime Allowance} $ {60,000} for {Responsibility Allowance} $ {35,000} for {Accommodation Allowance} 5.0 SELECTION OF APPARENT LOW BIDDER As specified in instruction to Bidder for selection of Apparent Low Bidder. 6.0 UNIT PRICES ($) Unit Price for {Grass Seedlings} as specified in section {014} Estimated Quantity of units: {1000} 0 1 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 Per {100 units} Unit Price for {Flower Seedlings} as specified in section {015} Estimated Quantity of units: {500} 0 0 8 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 Per {100 units} Unit Price for {Tree Seedlings} as specified in section {016} Estimated Quantity of units: {100} 0 0 4 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 Per {100 units} 7.0 DAILY RATE FOR COMPENSATION FOR CONSUMABLE DELAYS ($) Bidder shall determine and provide below the daily rate of compensation for any Compensable Delay caused by 5 HOSPITAL at any time during the performance of the work for Phase 2: 0 0 0 , 5 0 0 . 0 0 X {90} multiplier 5 HOSPITAL will perform the extension of the daily rate times the multiplier. 8.0 ALTERNATES NOT USED 9.0 LIST OF SUBCONTRACTORS Bidder will use Subcontractors for the work included in this Bid (Option Sum – Phase 2). 10.0 LIST OF CHANGES IN SUBCONTRACTORS DUE TO ALTERNATES        No. 10.0         BIDDER INFORMATION TYPE OF ORGANIZATION: Partnership. PERSONS SIGNING ON BEHALF OF BIDDER: Mary Gorretty – General Manager John Mark – Operations Manager ALL GENERAL PARTNERS 1. Erica Sam Mather Richardson Michael Lyon Paul Simons George Robin NEW JERSEY CONTRACTORS LICENSE(S): General Landscaping,                   123456,                31/12/2015    (Classification)                    (License No.)            (Expiry Date) 11.0         REQUIRED COMPLETED ATTACHMENTS The following documents are submitted with and made a condition for this bid: Bid security in form of Certified Check A Completed CM/Contractor Expanded List of Subcontractors form Copy of New Jersey Contractors license 12.0         DECLARATION I, Mary Gorretty, hereby declare that I am the General Manager of CABRO LANDSCAPERS submitting this Bid Form; that I am duly authorized to execute this Bid Form on behalf of Bidder; and that all information set forth in this Bid Form and all attachments hereto are, to the best of my knowledge, true, accurate, and complete as of its submission date.            I declare, under penalty of perjury, that the foregoing is true and correct and that this declaration was executed at Thompsons, State of New Jersey, on 8/08/2010.                                                                                                            ____________________                                                                                                                       (Signature) QUALITY CONTROL PLAN Our Contract Administration services consist of the following: Project Supervision We will provide project contract administration, project monitoring, create and maintain daily log of the project activities, respond to request for information, prepare contract change order documentation, prepare weekly project reports, prepare monthly payment vouchers, review and maintain contractor’s project schedule, conduct periodic site meetings, and provide project start-up and commissioning. Field Office During the project, the Contract Administrator at our home office will be the initial contact point for both the project contractor and all associated vendors. Temporary project-site office will be set up if need be. The site office will enjoy full home-office support at all times. The home-office support will be available to technical input when called up. Home-office staff will conduct periodic site visitations for purposes of inspection, progress documentation, and preparation of field reports for the contractor’s home office and our home office. Project Contract Administrator The main role of the PCA is to personally ensure the contractor is complying with the project plan and specifications, and with other contract requirements. The PCA will be on stand-by for communication with the contractor, and conduct periodic visitation to the project site to support and monitor the Project Monitor. Project Monitor During this project, the Project Contract Administrator will appoint a Project Monitor to keep a daily project log, and to be at the site-office on a daily basis to observe project operations and report directly to the PCA, who is responsible for the actions of the Project Monitor. Daily Log Among the responsibilities of the site-office is maintaining a daily log of the project operations as observed by and documented by the Project Monitor. This would include photographs as well as narrative description of the daily progress. This documentation should be relayed to the home-office on daily basis. Requests For Information The field office would maintain a log for RFI requests submitted from the contractor and will rely such RFI to the home-office for clarification if the Project Monitor cannot provide answers to the requests. The RFI will be submitted in a numbered sequence and identified by the sequence number. Weekly Project Report The Project Monitor shall write a weekly report to describe the project progress for the previous week, and any unusual occurrences. Contractor’s Project Schedule The Project Administrator and the Project Monitor will monitor the progress schedule on weekly basis and determine adherence to the project schedule. Field Change Orders The field office would have the capacity of providing design and documentation of small field change orders. Contract Change Orders These will be prepared forehand to respond to possible requests for project changes by the hospital to meet changing mission or project function requirements. Home Office Support Control all field activities to ensure that the project is undertaken according to contract specifications. Contract Administration Resources: Contact Administrator (CA): Project Contract Administrator (PCA): Project Monitor (PM): The management of Cabro Landscapers has approved this quality control policy, has required implementation of this plan by employees, vendors, suppliers, associates and subcontractors, and directs that compliance to this plan is mandatory. ACCIDENT PREVENTION PLAN Home-office’s Responsibilities:  ·Ã‚        Devote the resources necessary to eliminate any and all hazards in the project site.  ·Ã‚         Participate as a member of the Safety Committee, and pay everyone on the Committee for the time spent on safety work.  ·Ã‚        Have a system for hazard reporting that makes it easy for anyone to report any unsafe conditions, equipment or actions.  ·Ã‚        Provide training on the Accident Prevention Plan and in how to do each job safely. Site worker’s Responsibilities:  ·Ã‚        Read, understand and follow this Accident Prevention Plan. Report any unsafe condition or action to Contract Project Administrator or to Project Monitor.  ·Ã‚        Do not remove or by-pass any safety device.  ·Ã‚        Use the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) In case of emergencies  ·Ã‚        Use the nearest alarm station to alert everyone else on site.  ·Ã‚        Evacuate the site and go to the assembly point between the parking lot and the street out in front of the building. Ensure someone has called 911.  ·Ã‚        Do a head-count on everyone from your work area and if anyone is missing, notify the responding safety committee immediately when they arrive. Do not go back into a dangerous situation to look for anyone! Injuries:  ·Ã‚        All injuries must be treated, and all injuries must be reported.  ·Ã‚        Any employee who sees or detects a serious injury is expected to either call 911 themselves or notify someone else to call.  ·Ã‚        An â€Å"Accident, Incident, or Injury Report†– using a form like that shown in this Plan – will be filled out and turned into Janet. She will keep the file of reports and make sure the Safety Committee does a follow-up. Employee safety orientations:  ·Ã‚        Before anyone starts working at the project site, they must read this Accident Prevention Plan and then take a safety orientation site tour with the Project Contract Administrator.  ·Ã‚         Employees who will drive project vehicles must have an initial â€Å"check ride†with me or a lead worker, and must have an annual re-evaluation.  ·Ã‚        Regardless of any prior job experience they may have, no employee will begin working a new job or task before reviewing the safe work procedures and required personal protective equipment the Project Contract Administrator.  ·Ã‚        Every employee will attend refresher safety training monthly. Other sessions may be held if special needs arise: results of incident investigations, new equipment or processes, safety inspections show a need for training. Safety committee:  ·Ã‚        The Safety Committee will have one scheduled meeting each month. Other meetings may be called if urgent safety issues come up. Each meeting will have minutes recorded in writing.  ·Ã‚         Co pies of the minutes for all months will be available for review in the Employee Information bookcase.  ·Ã‚        There will be at least one management representative and two employee representatives at each meeting.  ·Ã‚        There will be three employee rep elected by ballots given to each employee of the company. Personal Protective Equipment:  ·Ã‚        Eye protection will be worn at all times while operating machinery or power tools.  ·Ã‚         Ear plugs or other hearing protection must be worn while operating a power saw, the planer, or the shop vacuum. Operating machinery and power tools:  ·Ã‚        No fixed or portable power tool will be used unless the manufacturer-supplied safeguards are in place and fully operational.  ·Ã‚         No power tool will be adjusted or worked on with the power still connected.  ·Ã‚         Formal lock-out/tag-out procedures will always be followed for those machines identified as requiring them.  ·Ã‚         Each employee is required to use their supplied personal protective equipment in those areas designated for their use.  ·Ã‚         Each employee must inspect their personal protective equipment prior to its use.  ·Ã‚         PPE that is worn, broken or otherwise unsuitable will be turned in for free replacement.
Thursday, November 21, 2019
First Council of Nicaea Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words
First Council of Nicaea - Assignment Example Arianism thus did not believe in the Holy Trinity (three equal persons in one God) as mainstream Christianity did. â€Å"Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth  as in fact there are many gods and many lords  yet for us there is one God (Gk. theos - ÃŽ ¸ÃŽ µÃŽ ¿Ã‚), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord (kyrios - ÃŽ ºÃ…à Î ¹ÃŽ ¿Ã‚), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist.†(NRSV) The controversy was submitted for decision to all the Christian bishops at the First Council of Nicaea, which is generally regarded as the First Ecumenical Council. The Council decided overwhelmingly to uphold the divinity of Christ. The vote of an estimated 250-318 attendees was nearly unanimous to adopt the view that Christ was God as well as man, with only three voting for the Arian position that Christ was not God. The Arian teaching thus became
Wednesday, November 20, 2019
German perpetrators committed the Holocaust Essay
German perpetrators committed the Holocaust - Essay Example The Holocaust was absolutely one of the most horrific events of the 20th century,and the term 'Holocaust' is basically used to describe "the killing of approximately six million European Jews during World War II" as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the Nazi regime in Germany led by Adolf Hitler" In order to be able to even remotely understand the Holocaust properly, there is a multitude of issues that need to be thoroughly addressed and discussed. Many people over time have attempted to explain the reasons as to why German perpetrators followed orders to commit mass murder, and the aim of this paper is to discuss whether or not these reasons are illuminating, as well as the reasons why they are or are not. By doing this, we will not only be able to get the answers to this, but as well will be able to better understand the issue of the Holocaust overall. This is what will be dissertated in the following.There are many different occurrences which ha ve taken place in the world which have left an incredible impact and have significantly influenced the future that lay ahead of it dramatically, and the Holocaust is, without a doubt, one of these described occurrences. There are so many questions that surround the Holocaust, namely that of how such ordinary people could have participated in such an unholy and unimaginable act of racism and hatred. Each person seems to have their own taking and view on this issue, and any account of the Holocaust itself truly has to take views such as this into consideration in order to be able to gain a proper understanding on the occurrence itself at all. In reality, although surely there are followers to each different explanation, at the same time there are obviously going to be those which are more believable and comprehendible than others, and it is important to determine which is which, thus proving the incredible need for a discussion of the matter of the different reasons that have been use d in the past in order to explain about the matter of how so many people could act so insensitive and callous and commit torture and murder to innocent human beings. The Holocaust was an occurrence which was characterized by the efficient and systematic attempt to assemble and kill as many people as possible, and for example, "detailed lists of potential victims were made and maintained using Dehomag statistical machinery, and meticulous records of the killings were produced. As prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property to the Nazis, which was then precisely cataloged and tagged, and for which receipts were issued" (Wette, 2006). The Holocaust was incredibly geographically widespread, and it was systematically conducted in virtually all available areas of Nazi-occupied territory, with the mass killing at its worst being in Central and Eastern Europe, which had more than 7 million Jews in the year 1939. The Holocaust was an insanely and unimaginably horrific and evil occurrence, which was carried out with any reprieve even for children or babies, and during the actual selection process within the Holocaust, children were divided carefully into two separate groups: those who could work, and those who could not. Those who were deemed as being healthy enough to work were kept alive only because they would be useful, and were given a uniform and a prisoner ID which was tattooed onto them. The children who were not considered as being fit for work were taken immediately to the gas chambers, tortured and killed. There were also many medical experiments which were carried out during the Holocaust, and most of these medical experiments included a great deal of torture; this included the placing of subjects in pressure chambers, testing various drugs on them to see the results and side effects, freezing them to death, and as well various other usually fatal traumas. Those involved with the Holocaust seemed to have
Monday, November 18, 2019
Traning in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Traning in business - Essay Example Most of the youths who joins an organization as a fresher, may not have much ideas about the organizational environments. Whatever they learned from the institutions might be the theoretical part and the practical part begins when they start their career in an organization. Training is the only option for the employers to make the fresh candidate suitable for their organization. The do’s and don’ts of the organization, organizational behavior, culture, objectives etc can be provided to the employees only through training. No knowledge can be perfect if the learner fail to update it. New knowledge is bursting from all the corners virtually in every second and without updating; the knowledge of an employee might not be enough to meet the current challenges. It is difficult for an employee to go to institutions for acquiring further knowledge because of his professional commitments. So it is necessary for the employers to train their employees properly to prepare them capable of meeting the ever changing challenges in the business world. The following diagram represents the flowchart of training in an organization. Training helps an employee to understand the business environment of the organization he is working for. Business environments can be different in different organizations. For example, business environments of Pepsi and Coke might be entirely different even thought they operate in the same soft drink manufacturing industry. In order to make the employee custom made, training is essential for each and every organization. Changes and challenges faced by different organizations might be entirely different. For example, as mentioned in the above example, the challenges faced by Pepsi might not be the same for Coke because of the different geographical locations they were operating. Even in same countries they may face different challenges. For example, Coke is accused of exploiting underwater resources more than the
Saturday, November 16, 2019
Search for Identity through Body Modification
Search for Identity through Body Modification Judging from Appearances Body modification of one sort or another has always been practiced new technologies have opened up the possibility for radical change. This has meant that we can now change fundamental aspects of our bodies most obviously our biological sex, but also racial characteristics, signs of ageing and apparent physical imperfections. Basically will be looking at what it means to want to radically alter the body to believe indeed that we have the wrong body Case Study: Nip Tuck Throughout the dissertation will be exploring the meanings acquired by the body in modern, western societies. In doing so the dissertation will examine the ways in which bodies are shaped, acted upon, represented and experienced. Therefore explore various ways in which the body has been seen as an object (the body we have), as a subject (the body we are) and as project (the body that we become) and will explore how these processes are intimately linked to regimes of power and knowledge. For example, recent years have seen the increased prominence and significance of various body projects health and fitness, dieting, cosmetic surgery and body modification- alongside a number of contemporary problems associated with the body new reproductive technologies, genetic engineering, cybernetics, etc. As these examples show, the body in contemporary culture has become a malleable object crucial for the articulation of identities of race ,gender, and sub cultural affiliation. This dissertation will critically examine some of these contemporary trends whilst simultaneously focusing on their social and historical contexts in order to give us a broader understanding of their meanings and implications. I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000years ago. Archaeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colourful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ethan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects means well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo†is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark. â€Å"The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warrior soften pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favour, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-,nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exercise often used together are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit and thin future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia â€Å"itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,†this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become an/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food binging followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Brood sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines†or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Raceland Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide abroad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; heist very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies(Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the bodying and of itself or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwisted cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,†she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colours, hemlines, cut, accessories but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost)always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order†(Entwisted 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwisted, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression.(Entwisted 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwisted about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification in particular, cosmetic surgery(Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,†which seems much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic†can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements†to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Verging posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Verging 2000, 1). Entwisted explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body†(2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions†(2001, 48). Entwisted explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression†(Entwisted 2000,138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Verging reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Verging 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport†(Shilling1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.†(Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,†and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence†(Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse nobody modification. Entwisted sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world†â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order â€Å"she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favas in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,†he writes(1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability taco-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behaviour, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue†asserts Favas, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order†(1996, 231). Favas sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,†according to Favas, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes†(Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of ourselves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines†or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models†(1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic interventions well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness†is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness†and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,†asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state†(1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness†is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire†(1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,†as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness â€Å"as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness†for aesthetic surgeons is utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,†and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century†(Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,†explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In†â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,†Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in†or â€Å"passing†for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis†(Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,†explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move†(Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages o Search for Identity through Body Modification Search for Identity through Body Modification Title: â€Å"Judging from Appearances: The Search for Identity through Body Modification†I. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in a number of ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000 years ago. Archeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colorful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ehsan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects men as well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, it is clear that most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo†is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark.†The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, Even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body Piercing Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warriors often pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body. Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favor, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-, nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and Exercise Diet and exerciseâ€â€often used togetherâ€â€are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fitâ€â€and thinâ€â€future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell. Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia†itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,†this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, in an effort to become and/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†â€â€anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of foodâ€â€bingingâ€â€followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Bordo sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest against the confines of femininity. Exercise, on the other hand, can be seen as a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exerciseâ€â€for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical Modification Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines†or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. II. Literature Review Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide a broad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modificationâ€â€such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exerciseâ€â€are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; he is very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Interestingly enough, many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once a seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies (Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the body in and of itselfâ€â€or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwistle cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,†she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the particulars of style: colors, hemlines, cut, accessoriesâ€â€but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost) always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order†(Entwistle 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwistle, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression. (Entwistle 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwistle about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as an organizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a general consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modificationâ€â€in particular, cosmetic surgery (Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,†which seems a much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic†can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in a footnote to a more general piece of research. The Body as Object Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, a continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements†to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Vergine posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors.It always involves, for example a loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Vergine 2000, 1). Entwistle explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body†(2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions†(2001, 48). Entwistle explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression†(Entwistle 2000, 138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Vergine reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations.By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Vergine 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport†(Shilling 1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.†(Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,†and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence†(Turner 1996, 64). Chaos vs. Order The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse on body modification. Entwistle sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world†â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order†she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favazza in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,†he writes (1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability to co-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behavior, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue†asserts Favazza, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order†(1996, 231). Favazza sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,†according to Favazza, depends on whether or not there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes†(Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of our selves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines†or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. III. Body Modification: History, Significance, Implications Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery, and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery, and explores its significance and complexity. In the first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that in today’s society, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models†(1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic intervention as well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness†is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness†and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,†asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state†(1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness†is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire†(1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century, and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,†as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness†as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness†for aesthetic surgeons is a utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,†and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of a syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century†(Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,†explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"Fitting In†â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,†Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in†or â€Å"passing†for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis†(Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,†explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move†(Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages of each constructed category are subject to change as society changes. The ideal is to be to move from the negative category to the positive category; the â€Å"catch†is that categories are subject to frequent change. Gilman and other researchers refer to â€Å"the discourse of ‘passing.’†This discourse came into existence during the racially charged nineteenth century, and is, according to Gilman, â€Å"the very wellspring of aesthetic surgery.†Citing the research of sociologist Max Weber, Gilman discusses the concept of validity and acceptance, which are only gained when one is recognized and accepted by the prevailing social group: â€Å"validity through group consensus.†In this light, Gilman posits, we can see â€Å"passing†as a type of â€Å"silent validation†(Gilman 1999, 26). Race and Feature In Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing, Clinton Sanders writes that â€Å"in western societies body sculpting to attain beauty or to avoid identification with disvalued groups is a common practice†(Sanders 1989, 7). He then goes on to describe the many ways in which people try to merge into the desired social group. Kinky hair is chemically straightened, while â€Å"ethnic†noses are permanently reshaped through plastic surgery. Less invasive procedures are dietary changes and exercise routines, which will reduce or increase body measurements in
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)